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Forest publications - Forest ecosystem - Forest research Location: Western slopes of Mount Rainier, USA. Methods: We performed classification analysis of 1970 satellite imagery and 2003 aerial photography to delineate establishment. Local site conditions were calculated from a LIDAR-based DEM, ancillary climate data, and 1970 tree locations in a GIS. We used logistic regression on a spatially weighted landscape matrix to rank variables. Results: Considerable establishment after 1970 caused forest line elevation to increase over 150 m in specific locations. Landscape heterogeneity increased with distance from the 1970 forest line. At a broad spatial context, we found establishment was most common near existing trees (0-50 m) and at low elevations (1250-1350 m). Slope aspect (W, NW, N, NE, and E), slope angle (40-60°), and other abiotic factors emerged as important predictors of establishment with increasing upslope distance from the forest line to restricted spatial extents. Conclusions: Favorable climatic conditions likely triggered widespread tree establishment. Readily available seed probably enhanced establishment rates near sexually mature trees, particularly in the less stressful environment at low elevations. The mass effect of nearly ubiquitous establishment in these areas may have obscured the importance of the abiotic setting to restricted spatial extents. Topographic variability apparently produced favorable sites that facilitated opportunistic establishment with increasing upslope distance from the forest line, thereby enabling additional trees to invade the alpine tundra.
New Publications Online From The US Forest Service Research and Development
25 newest publications from the US Forest Service, Research and Development. http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/
Going to extremes: low temperature tolerance and acclimation in temperate and boreal conifers
Despite global warming, temperatures in the continental interiors of Canada and Siberia can still fall below -60C and can remain below -40C for weeks at a time. These extreme temperatures occur not in barren tundra regions, but taiga forests dominated by species of spruce (Picea), fir (Abies), pine (Pinus) and larch (Larix). While other plant and animal species may receive some protection from snow cover, the above-ground parts of trees, including the foliage of evergreen trees, must survive the full brunt of the winter environment.
Fire-scar formation in Jeffrey pine - mixed conifer forests in the Sierra San Pedro Martir, Mexico
Little is known about the probability of fire-scar formation. In this study, we examined all mixed conifer trees for fire-scar formation in a 16 ha watershed that burned as part of a 2003 wildfire in Sierra San Pedro Ma´rtir National Park (SSPM), Mexico. In addition, we examine the probability of fire-scar formation in relation to the previous fire interval in forests in the SSPM and Sierra Nevada. Within the 16 ha SSPM watershed, 1647 trees were assessed (100% census) for new fire scars. The SSPM wildfire burned around the base of 78% of the trees, but only 8% developed a new fire scar. Although the years from tree germination to first fire scar could potentially represent a fire-free period, there is clear evidence from this study that the inclusion of this interval when computing fire statistics is not justified. When the time since previous fire was <10 years, 10"30 years, and >57 years, the probability of rescarring was approximately 0.05, 0.5, and 0.75, respectively. In areas where fires were frequent (<10 years), fire frequencies derived from fire scars will likely underestimate true fire frequency, at least in forests that are similar to those studied here.
Fire‐climate interactions in the American West since 1400 CE
Despite a strong anthropogenic fingerprint on 20th Century wildland fire activity in the American West, climate remains a main driver. A better understanding of the spatiotemporal variability in fire‐climate interactions is therefore crucial for fire management. Here, we present annually resolved, tree‐ring based fire records for four regions in the American West that extend back to 1400 CE. In all regions, years with high fire activity were characterized by widespread yet regionally distinct summer droughts. Overall fire activity was high in late Medieval times, when much of the American West was affected by mega‐droughts. A distinct decline in fire activity in the late 16th Century corresponds with anomalously low temperatures during the Little Ice Age and a decline in Native American fire use. The high spatiotemporal resolution of our fire record discloses a time‐frequency dependent climatic influence on wildfire regimes in the American West that needs to be accounted for in fire models.
Post-fire tree establishment patterns at the alpine treeline ecotone: Mount Rainier National Park, Washington, USA
Questions: Does tree establishment: (1) occur at a treeline depressed by fire, (2) cause the forest line to ascend upslope, and/or (3) alter landscape heterogeneity? (4) What abiotic and biotic local site conditions are most important in structuring establishment patterns? (5) Does the abiotic setting become more important with increasing upslope distance from the forest line?
"I just wanted to get away": An analysis of spring breakers' travel motivations
Scholarly research on Spring Break has grown substantially and has often associated spring breakers' motivations with a number of risky behaviors. Recent research, however, has challenged these assumptions. The purpose of this study was to examine spring breakers'
motivations for going on Spring Break. Unlike the media portrayal of Spring Break as a time of excess and risky behaviors, results showed that participants went on Spring Break primarily to "get away" from school and associated responsibilities. Other motivations included the search for rest and relaxation, spending time with friends and family, experiencing Spring Break for the first time, and simple necessity. Implications for existing
leisure theory and future motivational research are discussed.
Leisure resourcefulness as a predictor of level of affluence and life satisfaction: having more or doing with less
This research examines the role of affluence in guiding lifestyle orientation in contemporary society. The term "affluenza" is used to denote a lifestyle of consumption and materialism to achieve life satisfaction. The counter to affluenza is quality of life as manifested in self-improvement, community centeredness, and environmental stewardship. Leisure resourcefulness is knowing how and being able to make a meaningful life for oneself within the individual, cultural, and environmental constraints. Measures of affluenza, leisure
resourcefulness, and life satisfaction are examined for their interrelationships and implications for individual lifestyles and quality of life.
Management implications of changes in recreation activity motivation across physical settings
Outdoor recreation management frameworks suggest that a diverse set of recreation opportunities is necessary to meet the needs and desires of a diverse population of recreationists. Managers of recreation resources must understand recreational demand if they
wish to provide high-quality recreation opportunities to their users. The purpose of this study was to examine possible relationships between recreational activity choice, setting choice, and motivations among adult U.S. citizens who participated in one of four activities: hiking, walking, sightseeing, and camping in developed campgrounds. Data used in this study came from the National Survey on Recreation and the Environment. Between-groups analysis of variance was used to test for differences in mean importance scores for 13 motivations across seven environmental settings. Significant differences were found between motivation importance scores across the seven environmental settings for three of the four study activities. Results and implications are discussed.
Economic impact and market analysis of a special event: The Great New England Air Show
We conducted a post-event evaluation for the Great New England Air Show to assess its general economic impact and to refine economic estimates where possible. In addition to the standard economic impact variables, we examined travel distance, purchase decision involvement, event satisfaction, and frequency of attendance. Graphic mapping of event visitors' home ZIP codes using Google EarthTM provides a visual analysis
of the markets for the event.
Leaf age affects the responses of foliar injury and gas exchange to tropospheric ozone in Prunus serotina seedlings
We investigated the effect of leaf age on the response of net photosynthesis (A), stomatal conductance (gwv), foliar injury, and leaf nitrogen concentration (NL) to tropospheric ozone (O3) on Prunus serotina seedlings grown in open-plots (AA) and open-top chambers, supplied with either carbon-filtered or non-filtered air. We found significant variation in A, gwv, foliar injury, and NL (P < 0.05) among O3 treatments. Seedlings in AA showed the highest A and gwv due to relatively low vapor pressure deficit (VPD). Older leaves showed significantly lower A, gwv, NL, and higher foliar injury (P < 0.001) than younger leaves. Leaf age affected the response of A, gwv, and foliar injury to O3. Both VPD and NL had a strong influence on leaf gas exchange. Foliar O3-induced injury appeared when cumulative O3 uptake reached 8–12 mmol m−2, depending on soil water availability. The mechanistic assessment of O3-induced injury is a valuable approach for a biologically relevant O3 risk assessment for forest trees.
Calibration and validation of the relative differenced Normalized Burn Ratio (RdNBR) to three measures of fire severity in the Sierra Nevada and Klamath Mountains, California, USA
Multispectral satellite data have become a common tool used in the mapping of wildland fire effects. Fire severity, defined as the degree to which a site has been altered, is often the variable mapped. The Normalized Burn Ratio (NBR) used in an absolute difference change detection protocol (dNBR), has become the remote sensing method of choice for US Federal land management agencies to map fire severity due to wildland fire. However, absolute differenced vegetation indices are correlated to the pre-fire chlorophyll content of the vegetation occurring within the fire perimeter. Normalizing dNBR to produce a relativized dNBR (RdNBR) removes the biasing effect of the pre-fire condition. Employing RdNBR hypothetically allows creating categorical classifications using the same thresholds for fires occurring in similar vegetation types without acquiring additional calibration field data on each fire. In this paper we tested this hypothesis by developing thresholds on random training datasets, and then comparing accuracies for (1) fires that occurred within the same geographic region as the training dataset and in similar vegetation, and (2) fires from a different geographic region that is climatically and floristically similar to the training dataset region but supports more complex vegetation structure. We additionally compared map accuracies for three measures of fire severity: the composite burn index (CBI), percent change in tree canopy cover, and percent change in tree basal area. User's and producer's accuracies were highest for the most severe categories, ranging from 70.7% to 89.1% Accuracies of the moderate fire severity category for measures describing effects only to trees (percent change in canopy cover and basal area) indicated that the classifications were generally not much better than random. Accuracies of the moderate category for the CBI classifications were somewhat better, averaging in the 50%"60% range. These results underscore the difficulty in isolating fire effects to individual vegetation strata when fire effects are mixed. We conclude that the models presented here and in Miller and Thode ([Miller, J.D. & Thode, A.E., (2007). Quantifying burn severity in a heterogeneous landscape with a relative version of the delta Normalized Burn Ratio (dNBR). Remote Sensing of Environment, 109, 66"80.]) can produce fire severity classifications (using either CBI, or percent change in canopy cover or basal area) that are of similar accuracy in fires not used in the original calibration process, at least in conifer dominated vegetation types in Mediterranean"climate California.
Economic impact of the 2008 American Folk Festival in Bangor, Maine
Festivals and events are becoming increasingly important drivers of tourism activity in
Maine. Based on a survey of festival visitors, this study used an IMPLANTM input-output model to estimate the economic impact of the 2008 American Folk Festival in Bangor, ME. The Center for Tourism Research and Outreach estimated that 95,626 local and nonlocal individuals visited the festival. Visitors' spending outside of the festival was highest for restaurants and/or lounges, followed by gasoline, hotels, gifts, and outdoor equipment. For those who visited the festival exclusively, the highest expenditures were for hotels and other
accommodations, followed by grocery and convenience store purchases, restaurants and/or lounges, and gasoline. Visitors' estimated total direct spending was $6.5 million. The festival's estimated economic impact in the Bangor area was $9.8 million. Implications for the local economy and suggested strategies for promoting the festival are discussed.
A comparison of two follow-up analyses after multiple analysis of variance, analysis of variance, and descriptive discriminant analysis: A case study of the program effects on education-abroad programs
This study compared the utility of two different post-hoc tests after detecting significant differences within factors on multiple dependent variables using multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA). We compared the univariate F test (the Scheffé method) to descriptive discriminant analysis (DDA) using an educational-tour survey of university study-abroad students. Differences on five dependent measures of study-abroad program outcomes were compared by students' academic major and in-country residency arrangements (residence hall, home stay, apartment). Univariate F test and DDA were used to detect group differences in the dependent variables after the overall significant F test in MANOVA. The results indicated that the two post-hoc tests were congruent. However,
DDA served better than the univariate F test to determine which outcome variables contributed most to separating the independent variables. We conclude that both post-hoc
analyses should be utilized after a significant MANOVA to obtain accurate and full insight into the data.
Human and climatic influences on fire occurrence in California's North Coast Range
Outside of the immediate coastal environments, little is known of fire history in the North Coast Range of California. Fire scar specimens were collected from ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa C. Lawson), sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana Douglas), incense cedar (Calocedrus decurrens [Torr] Florin), and Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii [Mirb.] Franco) for seven plots in mixed-conifer forests from the Mendocino National Forest, California, USA. Five plots were on high ridges immediately adjacent to the Sacramento Valley (DRY plots). The other two plots were on mesic north facing slopes interior in the range (MESIC plots), and were separated from the Sacramento Valley by at least one to several ridge systems. These two plots were selected because they supported populations of rare lady’s slipper orchids (Cypripedium fasciculatum [Kellogg ex S. Watson] and C. montanum [Douglas ex Lindl.]). We found that DRY plots had unusually short fire return intervals (FRI) compared to other areas in northwestern California. The median FRI for these plots ranged from 4.5 yr to 6 yr in comparison with a tenth percentile of 11 yr, grand median of 24 yr, and ninetieth percentile of 66 yr for FRIs from other mixed conifer plots (n = 109) in the region. In northwestern California, most fire scars have been found primarily at ring boundary (68 %) and secondarily in latewood (23 %) with few in earlywood (9 %). In contrast, in the DRY plots 35 % (88) of the fire scars were in earlywood with only 15 % (39) at the ring boundary. Fire occurrence was associated with drought conditions in the year of fire, and with wet conditions three years before the fire year. Before ~1850, fires that scarred at least two trees on a site were quite frequent for the DRY plots while being less frequent and more variable on the MESIC plots. However, the MESIC orchid habitats burned with frequency and seasonality similar to mixed conifer forests in the Klamath Mountains of northern California. Fires were less frequent after ~1850, with fires ceasing on most plots shortly after 1900. We suggest that these unusually low FRIs and high incidence of fire scars in earlywood were due to the adjacency of the DRY plots to the hot, relatively dry Sacramento Valley grasslands that were likely influenced by the burning practices of Native Americans.
A comparative analysis of mail and internet surveys
Th e field of survey research is constantly evolving with the introduction of new technologies. Each new mini-revolution brings criticism about the accuracy of the new survey method. The latest development in the survey research field has been increased reliance on Internet surveys. This paper compares data collected through a mixed-mode (mail and Internet) survey
of Zuma Beach users in Malibu, CA, focusing on differences in response rate and in responses to questions between the two modes. Two-sample t-tests were performed on each variable to determine differences between the modes. These tests found 15 significant differences in responses to demographic variables, scale items, and Likert items. The format of questions is discussed as a possible explanation for some of these differences in responses.
Experiences of campers and campsite impacts in the St. Regis Canoe Area Wilderness
Visitors who camped during the summer of 2007 in the St. Regis Canoe Area (SRCA) in the
Adirondack Park, New York, were surveyed via an on-site interview and diary about 14 detracting situations or problems they may have experienced, how they coped with these situations, and how they rated satisfaction with various attributes of the trip. Campsite condition assessments were also conducted at 56 SRCA campsites. Data for camper experiences on a specific site were matched with the campsite assessment for that site to
create a single data set with trip information related to a specific campsite. Three research propositions were explored and supported by the analysis: visitors perceive problems with both social and resource conditions; visitor satisfactions were aff ected by social conditions
and resource conditions; and campers used coping mechanisms to deal with problems and intended to modify future behavior in response to on-site conditions.
Recreation trails in Maine and New Hampshire: A comparison of notorized, non-motorized, and non-mechanized trails
We sampled 112 trail segments in Maine and New Hampshire to assess the impact of motorized and non-motorized recreation on trail conditions and stream sedimentation. On each segment, we assessed physical trail conditions (width, cross-sectional area, occurrence of excessively muddy and rutted/eroded sections), presence of trash, and sedimentation at stream crossings. Motorized trails were significantly wider and had significantly greater cross-sectional area, more rutted sections, and more trash than both non-motorized and non-mechanized trails. Non-mechanized trails had the highest density
of excessively muddy sections. All trail types (nonmechanized, non-motorized, and motorized) had sections that contributed sediment to streams and 9 percent of stream crossings had catastrophic sediment additions (significantly altered stream morphology). The data also show significant differences in physical parameters among trail types, but both past land use and current recreational use may contribute to these differences.
Changes in national park visitation (2000-2008) and interest in outdoor activities (1993-2008)
This paper addresses Pergams and Zaradic's (2006) assertions that recent national park visitation has declined sharply and that these declines are directly related to the increased use of electronic media and passive forms of entertainment. We analyzed two large, national datasets that have used consistently replicated methods of annual data collection over a lengthy period. Although we found evidence of some decline in national park visitation between 2000 and 2008, the declines were not dramatic. Analysis of data between 1993 and 2008 showed no evidence of declining interest in travel, outdoor recreation, and media-related activities among people who are interested in wildlife and the environment.
Constraints and benefits of changing the distribution process for recreation special use permits in the U.S
A significant policy change governing recreation Special Use Permits on U.S. Federal lands
was implemented in October 2008. The changes may have a major impact on current and potential recreation users, members of local communities, and existing outfitter/guide services. This paper presents findings from interviews with permit distribution supervisors about changes in the permit allocation process. This research is one part of a larger project focused on developing a universal but flexible framework by which permit distribution officials can allocate and monitor recreation Special Use Permits.
Predictors of visitors' intention to return to a nature-based recreation area
This study explored predictors of recreationists' intention to return to Santee Cooper Country (SCC), a popular destination for angling-based tourism in South Carolina. Our hypothesized model indicated that recreationists' experience use history and place satisfaction would positively affect four dimensions of place attachment to SCC. Place attachment was also
modeled as a predictor of intention to return to SCC. In addition to testing the hypothesized relationships, this study examined the effect of two moderators, place familiarity and angling skill, on these relationships. Invariance tests across the four groups illustrated that highly skilled recreationists' intention to return was driven mostly by their emotional attachment to the recreation area, while the lower-skill group's intention to return was driven mainly by social ties to SCC. Place familiarity had no significant moderating effect.
Modeling the scenic beauty of the Highland Scenic Highway, West Virginia
Finding sites with a pleasant view is important to maximize visitors' scenic satisfaction. A geographic information systems analysis of viewsheds is helpful for locating sites with maximum visibility. Viewshed analyses can also be combined with public perceptions
of scenic beauty for selecting the most scenic sites. This research modeled the perceived beauty of the Highland Scenic Highway of West Virginia with the visible land cover features in early and late fall 2007. The area of each land cover type visible from 16 different locations was calculated, and photographs taken at each of the sites were used to elicit public perceptions of scenic beauty. Forest cover was significantly related to the scenic beauty
of late fall but not to that of early fall. This result shows that leaf cover diversity is a major factor in perceived scenic beauty in the study area.
Building sustainable communities using sense of place indicators in three Hudson River Valley, NY, tourism destinations: An application of the limits of acceptable change process
This study explores whether measures of residents' sense of place can act as indicators in the Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC) process to facilitate tourism planning and management. Data on community attributes valued by residents and the associated values
and meanings were collected through focus groups with 27 residents in three Hudson River Valley, New York, communities. Data analysis found that strength of sense of place changes over time, as do the meanings and values associated with places. The quantification of sense
of place required to establish limits makes it difficult to incorporate evolving place meanings. Therefore, sense of place scales are not indicators that easily conform to the LAC framework. Tourism development proposals that alter places may alter place meanings. Understanding residents' sense of place is the first step in establishing a framework for evaluating such proposals.
Attendance motivations and visitor segments within a university agricultural festival
Festivals attract a variety of visitors driven by a complex set of motivations. The objective of
this study was to identify and classify motivations for attending the South Farm Showcase (SFS), a university-based agricultural festival in Missouri. The study further developed a motivation-based segmentation of festival visitors and examined their distinct characteristics.
Analysis identified two motivation factors (Fun and Entertainment and Theme Identity) and two types of visitors (Entertainment Seekers and Institutional Loyals). Entertainment Seekers and Institutional Loyals differ in their socio-economic characteristics and in their leisure and tourism preferences. Marketing, management, and academic implications of these findings are presented.
Pedestrian Levels of Service (LOS) at Muir Woods National Monument (California): An introduction to multi-modal LOS for parks and protected areas
Historically, transportation planning and management have been guided largely by principles of efficiency. Specifically, the Transportation Research Board has utilized a levels of service (LOS) framework to assess quality of service in terms of traffic congestion, speed and travel time, and maximum road capacity. In the field of park and outdoor recreation management,
on the other hand, indicators and standards of quality have emerged as an important conceptual framework for assessing the quality of visitor experience. This contemporary management-by-objectives approach provides a standard of quality based upon minimum
acceptable conditions. While LOS is an effective utilitarian approach to transportation planning, application of an indicators-and-standards framework could prevent unacceptable negative impacts to park resources and the visitor experience. Past studies in Acadia National Park (Maine), Blue Ridge Parkway (Virginia), and Muir Woods National Monument (California) provide a means for exploring this conceptual bridge.
Norm stability at Alcatraz Island: Effects of time and changing conditions
Research suggests that visitors often have norms about the resource and social conditions
acceptable in a park and that understanding such norms can be useful for park management. Most studies of norms use data from cross-sectional surveys, and little is known about how norms may change over time. To explore this issue, we conducted a study in 2007 to determine whether norms for the number of people-at-one-time in the prison cellhouse at Alcatraz Island, California, had changed since a similar survey in 1998. We conducted an on-site, self-administered visitor survey using a questionnaire identical to the one used in 1998
and similar sampling procedures. The survey produced 453 usable questionnaires and yielded a response rate of 83 percent. Th ere were few substantive differences in findings between the two studies. The findings are generally consistent with results from other research.
Normative tolerances for scuba divers and snorkelers: An application of the Potential for Conflict index2
This study examines Florida Keys snorkeler and SCUBA diver encounter norms using the Potential for Conflict Index2 (PCI2). Snorkelers and SCUBA divers evaluated the acceptability of encountering a specific number of other snorkelers and SCUBA divers on a 7-point scale ranging from extremely acceptable (3) to extremely unacceptable (-3). Statistical analysis results were put into PCI2 templates to construct a graphic display of encounter norms for each recreation group. According to both snorkelers and SCUBA divers, as encounters increase, acceptability evaluations decrease. In addition, acceptability starts to decline at an encounter level of 5, not 0, which may be a function of safety. All recreationists consider a large number of snorkelers to be more acceptable than the same number of SCUBA divers, possibly due to their location in the water column.